IT Security As Required By Sarbanes-Oxley Term Paper

IT Security As Required By Sarbanes-Oxley - Term Paper Example However, it is a fact that Sarbox also provides parameters and mechanics for enhancing IT security. Thesis statement The benefits of incorporating the provisions of Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 in IT security far outweigh the short-term gains of non-compliance, since the Act injects organizational transactions with security and confidentiality. II) Brief overview/history of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was enacted on July 30th, 2002. Because of the original intention and the mandate of the Act, financial accuracy must be certified by the management concerned. Because of the provisions of the Same Act, the penalties for financial fraud have been made more severe. Similarly, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 strengthened the autonomy of external auditors who analyze and reexamine the accuracy of corporate statements of accounts and also bolstered the oversight function of the board of directors. Simon, Smalley, and Schultz (2009) divulge that the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 comes against the backdrop of serious corporate and accounting scandals such as the Enron, Adelphia, Tyco International, WorldCom and Peregrine Systems Scandals. These scandals had cost investors billions of dollars, following the collapse of the affected companies' share prices. These scandals, together with their serious effects weakened public confidence in America's security markets. The Act comprises 11 sections which range from criminal penalties to additional corporate board responsibilities. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 demands that the Securities and Exchange Commission implements rulings on prerequisites to compliance with the law. III) How the Sarbanes-Oxley Effects & Constraints on Information Technology Security (Industry & Management) Section 404 Compliance One of the ways the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 effects and constraints IT security section 404 compliance is by emphasizing a comprehensive understanding of internal controls, as a set of an enterprise's i nternal procedures, providing reasonable assurances that the enterprise will meet its target in all the specified areas. This is the case since Section 404 Compliance extends emphasis on not just historical financial reporting, but on internal controls also. Together with the rules spelled out in the SEC, there is a requirement that public companies' management should assess and report periodically, on the effectiveness of internal controls on financial reporting. To this effect, it is given that the report that the management hands in must be accompanied by statements of evaluations by an external auditor to provide an attestation to the credibility and reliability of the conclusions that the management has made. According to SAI Global (2010), the portfolio that Information Technology Security Section provides also addresses matters beyond Sarbanes-Oxley, to tackle other auditing and legal dimensions of internal controls and the responsibilities that sundry and all actors dispense , when executing systems of internal controls. Even though the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 is leaner in scope than internal controls, the Portfolio agrees with the fact of the tremendous impact of the legislation and studies a number of its provisions which force moderations on diverse aspects of internal contr

European community law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

European community law - Essay Example In addition, such compensation had to be made to a person, even if the infringement was the outcome of a decision of the court of last instance. However, the court would be liable, only if the violation was sufficiently serious and a direct causal relationship could be established between the infringement and the harm caused to the injured party (Kobler v Austria). Moreover, the highest national courts act as the court of last resort for individuals to rely on the rights provided by EC law. These courts of final instance are also duty bound to request a preliminary ruling, on the basis of the provisions of Article 234(3) EC. The ECJ, after taking these issues into account has ruled in favour of state liability being extended to judicial infringements. The ECJ rejected the argument that the principles of legal certainty and res iudicata would be affected adversely. It stated that proceedings to make a Member State liable would not have an impact on a national court’s decision a s res iudicata. This opinion of the ECJ was founded on the contention that â€Å"proceedings seeking to render the State liable do not have the same purpose and do not necessarily involve the same parties as the proceedings resulting in the decision which has acquired the status of res iudicata.† (Council of Europe). This line of reasoning of the ECJ was held by some to be specious. Their arguments were based on the premise that the national courts were compelled to reconsider disputed decisions, in order to determine whether such decisions were really infringing EC law (Council of Europe). They were also required to find out the reasoning behind such decisions Individuals can claim against a Member State if it fails to implement a Directive or if its domestic law infringes European Community (EC) Law. In addition, no Member State can enact legislation that attempts to exclude state liability. The misinterpretation of provisions of EC Law will be treated as infringement (Trag hetti del Mediterraneo SpA, in liquidation v Repubblica italiana). Furthermore, the Community law disallows the enactment of legislation that seeks to limit liability to instances of intentional fault and serious misconduct of the courts. Such limitation is in the context of laws that are aimed at circumventing the liability of the Member State in other case, wherein there had been an explicit breach of the relevant law (Traghetti del Mediterraneo SpA, in liquidation v Repubblica italiana). Hence, the competent national courts have to investigate the gravity of the infringement in the decision of a court. Such competent courts have to consider the judicial function of the infringing court and ascertain whether this infringement was obvious. It was also held by the ECJ that conditions, such as the special length-of-service increment under Austrian law, served to hinder the free movement of workers. Any hindrance to the free movement of goods or workers was against the objectives of t he European Union; consequently, the Austrian condition was untenable (Wissink 419). In Brasserie du Pecheur, the ECJ established the concept of state liability. However, there was considerable confusion as to whether such liability was applicable to infringements committed by national courts. The ECJ eliminated this muddled understanding, via its decision in Kobler (Council of Europe). In this case, it ruled that Member States were also liable for breach of EC law by their national judicial authorities. In Kobler, the ECJ clearly established that breach of

Are Visual Effects Improving or Damaging Film?

Are Visual Effects Improving or Damaging Film? Introduction From the very inception of film visual effects have been employed by numerous photographers and film makers to enhance, to realise and create new meaning. The very early days of film took great advantage of ‘visual magic to create illusions and trickery which have impressed countless audiences. Over a century ago when photography was emerging as an art form some unscrupulous commercial photographers would capture portrait shots using an ordinary exposure but then as soon as the subject was removed from the studio a collaborator would be positioned within the same setting, a quick exposure would be taken so as to leave a faint image trace on the film. The unsuspecting customer would then be handed a positive copy of their image with what appeared to be a ghostly figure in shot. A more subtle variation involved the customer being placed with numerous props around him or her, the props would be removed for the second exposure of the ghost character, so as they wouldnt appear too d eliberately double exposed. The ghost character would usually be wearing black clothing as film does not ‘see black due to the chemical process in the emulsion of film which identifies light only, therefore only the ghost would appear in the second image. And herein began the industry of special effects. This ghost trick was the starting point for what is now known as the matte process where unrequired objects are removed from the exposure by masking them so they do not register on the film. One of the first uses of this process in a moving image sequence was witnessed in Alexander Kordas Things To Come (1936) in which the upper levels of a futuristic underground city have been double exposed above footage of live actors, matte masks prevented one image showing on the other image. This film provides one of the earliest examples of special effects being adopted to positively improve the aesthetics of a film. Of course since films early experiments with visual effects the industry has today developed into a very sophisticated, digitally driven and technically ultra-advanced visual medium. Computers have taken special effects to an entirely new level and as computers continue to update and improve their spec so too will the film industry develop around these advances; quite simply computers and digital technology have enabled films to be produced which otherwise would not have been. However despite the often profound visual success of special effects in certain cases some people argue that film is now placing an over reliance on special effects, they argue that visual effects in some films are counter productive as they come across as ineffective and some times unnecessary. Some also question the performance of the actors if all they are doing in a film is running in front of a green screen shouting at an imagined ‘alien clutching an imagined prop. Others raise concerns regarding the films quality and the processes of putting a film together where much of it is CGI constituted. So is it really the case that films being produced now would be better received by audiences if they did not make so much use of visual effects? Or is it that some studios and directors simply cant adjust effectively to modern day film making? And who is to blame for this? Man or machine? As visual effects artist Piers Bizony points out: One of the greatest misconceptions about modern movies is that visual effects are generated by computers. Nothing could be further from the truth. Human inventiveness is the most important ingredient and it always will be. Computers offer amazing new possibilities, but the underlying challenges of movie illusions are the same today as they were nearly a century ago when the industry was young . Chapter 1: The Profound Benefits of Using Visual Effects in Film Digital effects have significantly impacted on mainstream films, indeed digital technology is now synonymous with exceptional visual effects. Michael Baileys sci-fi film Armageddon (1999) provides a good example of a director engaging with digital visual effects which achieves an impressive and hugely successful end product. The disaster film depicts the efforts to prevent Earth being destroyed by a huge meteorite on a collision course with it. Teams of ‘heroes are sent into orbit in an attempt to blow the meteorite up and save the world. The film is saturated with digital effects some of which are the result of a very complex process. These computer generated sequences include the entire orbit scenes, the meteorite shots and the films climax. The evolutionary process by which the visual effects product is accomplished can be an awe inspiring process in itself; take for example the asteroid in Armageddon which began life as a small sketch on a napkin, the image was then refined and digitized, then colour was added to it in Photoshop. After this a physical model of the asteroid was constructed out of foam. Numerous shots were then taken and fed back into a computer so that other effects could be added such as gasses and rocks. A second and larger model was then built and using an intricate technological process wired the model so that a computer could read every single three-dimensional detail of it. The final product we see in the film is an image which is the result of multiple digital imagery layers with many of the films scenes comprising of between fifty and a hundred layers. It is an astounding feat of modern visual trickery. If the film had been made several years before hand it would have had to employ the more conventional optical printing cinematographic process. However this would have left green lines visible on the subjects and depreciated the overall aesthetic qualities of the film, today computers can remove these lines thereby rendering the composite process invisible to the viewer. Contemporary modern visual effects engender a film culture based on a production process that in actual fact is less ‘physical. As academics and authors Peter Lehman and William Luhr observe: As a movie like Armageddon makes clear, much of what we now see in Hollywood films never existed in front of the camera and this has had a profound effect upon how we think about movies. The quality of the visual effects necessarily impacts on the believability of the film for the viewer and most Hollywood films strive to hide any signs of the film making methods used with the aim of providing the spectator with a ‘real experience. Some label this style of Hollywood film making a ‘the invisible style and digital visual effects in many instances now makes this film making approach even more attainable, and more easier to produce as costs are cut. Films like Cecil B. De Milles The Ten Commandments (1956) used to be a rare event in Hollywood because of the costs involved in creating the special visual effects, but now thanks to modern visual effects financial barriers have been removed and we now see Hollywood increasing their output of more visually daring films. Michael Baileys follow-up to Armageddon was the hugely successful blockbuster Pearl Harbour (2002) which again repeated the success of his previous film as regards the use of visual effects and wen t on to generate worldwide box office sales of just under  £300,000,000. When Ridley Scotts historical action drama Gladiator (2000) was released there was wide media coverage focusing on many of the visual effects the film had employed . In the film many of the scenes occur in the Roman coliseum and we are treated to plenty of shots of an entire coliseum where hoards of spectators occupy it observing the macabre event taking place below. However the spectacle was in actual fact constructed from multiple digital layers and is another example of visual effects making an invaluable contribution to the film industry. It is only through digital technology that we can enjoy with such visual fluidity the epic structure of the coliseum, the gladiators engaging in their fierce battle and the jeering spectators all in one shot. James Cameron is a Canadian director with numerous titles to his name and is well known for his use of cutting edge visual effects technology. His first blockbuster foray into the visual effects arena was with his groundbreaking sci-fi The Terminator (1984) in which we witness a director pushing the boundaries of special effects capabilities. The film epitomises a trend of the time in which Hollywood was experimenting with new means of visual effects through the production of films which fused the genres of science fiction and horror including Alien (1979), Blade Runner (1982), Robocop (1987) and Predator (1987), a breed of films which author Mark Jancovich describes as films which: Contain strong female leads; an interest in the family; concerns about scientific-technical rationality and the military; killing machines which lack conscious motivation; and forms of body/horror . Within Camerons Terminator film we can glean an overpowering sense of directorial creativity which, for all of the films impressive and successful visual effects, is still somehow constrained not by the mind of the director but by the technology available to him. The film was low budget costing around  £4m to make but due to its huge popularity generated  £30m in box office sales in America alone. The Terminator bred a franchise and to date four films have been made although only the first two were under Camerons direction. In Terminator 2: Judgement Day (1991) Cameron teams up with George Lucass Industrial Light and Magic visual effects house and three other special effects houses. Cameron builds on his rendered water tentacle he created for The Abyss (1989); he was encouraged by some of the concepts used for The Abyss and in Terminator 2 created a Terminator constructed of liquid metal – the T–1000. On screen we witness T-1000, a polymorphic assassin, shape-shifti ng into anyone it touches. To achieve many of the films visual effects Cameron fused two elements of computer generated graphics with a film composite to create blue prints which were heavily used with astounding success. Between Cameron and the four visual effects houses the film boasts three hundred optical and mechanical shots incorporating state of the art computer produced imagery as well as more conventional optical trickeries and process photography. Each of the four effects companies provided the film with their own unique contributions. For example visual effects company ‘Video Image produced the twelve TerrorVision shots from the Arnold Schwarzenegger T-800 characters infra-red point of view. This was achieved by scanning into a computer live footage and manipulating the colour scheme then overlaying it with flashing graphics. ‘Fantasy Film II effects company had the task of producing the opening ‘future war sequence by improving it with intricate optical enhancements, they also created optical lighting and lasers for the shots of the arrival of the Terminator. It was ‘4Ward Production which created the nuclear blast scenes in which Los Angeles is devastated by a nucl ear bomb. The sequence was partly electronically created by using a big layered painting of the city which included a blast dome and by using the Apple Mac programme Electric Image very effectively simulated the destruction of buildings to capture the blasts destructive effects. However it was Industrial Light and Magic and Stan Winston Studios working in collaboration who were presented with the challenge of making the T-1000 which would turn out to be a combination of mechanical prosthetics, moving puppets and complex processes of computer generated digital imagery. Camerons Titanic (1997) was until very recently the worlds most successful box office film. The film made great use of visual effects as well as employing some more traditional special effects processes. Cameron constructed an entire Titanic replica which was able to be flooded and broken apart for the sinking sequences. Most of the visual effects were supplied by Camerons own company Digital Domain which made use of both CG and miniature models to recreate the journey and eventual fate of the ship. Digital Domain also generated hundreds of digital passengers, digital water and numerous digital matte paintings and also created particle effects which simulated smoke. Other visual effects work on the film was carried out by VIFX who composited icy breaths onto some of the characters to ensure maximum authenticity for outside scenes. A number of other collaborators include POP Film who created some very clever digital face replacements and complex matte paintings. And CIS Hollywood made blue sky substitutes and bluescreen composites. The whole collaboration ensured the final product did what it was supposed to do. The films visual effects are an overwhelming credit to a Hollywood narrative film which, in true Hollywood style, hopes to ensure its audiences beliefs are suspended so the journey is as real as it can get, there can be no doubt that the visual effects in this film was a key ingredient in helping the audience achieve that belief suspension. On the 29th August 2009 the Daily Mail ran an article with the title ‘How James Camerons 3D Film Could Change Cinema Forever. The story previewed James Camerons latest sci-fi adventure film Avatar (2009) and the articles author claimed: A movie revolution will take place at the end of the year potentially offering as big a leap in our viewing experience as the change from black-and-white television to colour. The remark was perhaps a little over zealous but nonetheless captured the sentiment of the huge visual success celebrated by the release of Avatar. The film had been a concept in Camerons mind since the mid 1990s but due to the deficit in technological capabilities the film remained unmade. In actual fact Cameron didnt completely wait for the technology to catch up he made technology catch up by creating specialist cameras and equipment required to make the 3D film a reality. The imagery in Avatar constitutes 60% CGI and most of the CG character animation sequences are filmed using live actors with groundbreaking new motion-capture processes. The other 40% of the film comprises of live action imagery and relies on more conventional special effects. In bringing Camerons CG characters to life he has essentially created a whole new method for filming motion capture; he makes his actors wear special body suits with a standard definition camera attached to a head ring which will repeatedl y take photographs of their faces. Then the data is sent to another camera which creates a real-time image of the ‘live actor in costume. Of the processes used to create his visual effects in Avatar Cameron stated: Its this amazing ability to quickly conjure scenes and images and great fantasy scapes that is very visual†¦When you are doing performance capture, creatively its very daunting. Its very hard to imagine what it will look like. But if you can see it, if you can have a virtual image of what is it going to be like, then you are there . Avatar adopts further new motion capture processes with its Facial Performance Replacement (FPR) technique which allowed Cameron to reshape the facial movements of the actors. So where dialogue is altered after principal photography on a scene it is still capable of being perfectly integrated into the final scene thereby avoiding actors having to re-shoot another take with their body suits and head rigs on again. Its as though Cameron is constantly merging the boundaries of CGI and live action imagery but appears to have created the desired result although at cost. Whilst the film was in production James Cameron said in an interview on Canadian television that:Were in CG hell. Were trying to create a world from scratch. Its like trench warfare. Were working with computer-generated characters that are photo-realistic. Thats tough. We set the bar high. Were just now getting confidence that its going to work .Its the type of remark that embodies the drive behind an artists creative inte lligence and reveals his determination as well as frustration of a project which ultimately will be successful, James Cameron must be sitting comfortably with the knowledge that he broke his own previous record. Avatar is now the biggest box office success in cinema history. Chapter 2: When Do Visual Effects Damage Film? It is incontrovertible that visual effects have augmented many film experiences and that todays modern technological advances have created a film industry capable of exceeding audiences expectations. However despite the immense success of these visual effects there is a growing feeling among many people and film makers alike that digital effects are eroding the quality of some films. CGI used to be a hugely expensive process so much so that George Lucass Star Wars (1977) only contained a ninety second CGI sequence which took three months to complete. However almost twenty years later and the cost of CGI has significantly reduced which enables Pixar Animated Studios to profitably produce an entirely computer generated film – Toy Story (1995). Just another six years later and Sony manages to remove the difference between cartoon and ‘real life with its production of Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within (2001). Today CGI is an integral ingredient for many filmmakers who employ its use for most of Hollywoods big action sequences. Despite the affordability of CGI it still remains an expensive process and is very time consuming and this is precisely why it is often contracted out of Hollywood to specialist visual effects companies. As we have seen above Avatar had at least four different visual effects companies work on it, and Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines (2003) had eleven outside companies produce the visual effects. Herein lies one of the key areas of concern regarding the use of visual effects in contemporary film making. So that this type of digital outsourcing can be facilitated the film is essentially divided into two separate productions: firstly the studio or location based live action scenes and secondly the CGI element which is made on computers. During the live action filming the actor will quite often be working on whats called a ‘limbo set in which there will be few physicalities to the scene, instead the actor will be required to simulate particular actions and even mouth certain words of dialogue, all the omissions will then be filled in at a later stage on computer when engaging the CGI stage of the production. It will paint bold background imagery, place elaborate costumes on characters, implant certain objects into the actors hands and create sounds and dialogue befitting of the scenario. When the live footage has to be completed and even the editing of the live film the divide between the live and the CGI work becomes more distinct and problematic as quite often directors havent seen any of the CGI imagery at that stage. One classic example of this situation was during the filming of Jonathan Mostows Terminator 3. The film began shooting in July 2002 and Warner Brothers required the film to be submitted within twelve months for its release. However the sub-contracted CGI element of the production would take eight months for the subcontractors to complete, and so due to the time restriction this meant that Mostow had no choice other than to provide storyboards to the CGI teams so they could begin work and so were not working from the live footage which Mostow had yet to film. The split nature of this method of film making is epitomised, almost bizarrely, in the film itself in the face of Arnold Schwarzenegger. The right side of his face has ordinary make-up on it, the left side is green this is because the digital animation supervisor San Rafael directed the CGI which would become Schwarzeneggers right side of his face, whereas Mostow directed the left side of his face in Los Angeles. Once the CGI had been completed there was simply no time to facilitate a re-do. Mostow stated at the time: For a filmmaker that is the worst thing you can imagine. In the regular rhythm of making movies you shoot, you edit, you hone the editing, and then you add the finishing touches. Computer graphics turns the normal procedures of filmmaking upside down . This method of filmmaking was also witnessed in the production processes of Avatar which outsourced the digital effects work to a number of different companies. One of those companies was London based Framestore and some of the work they had to carry out vividly illustrates the production issues of films which employ heavy use of CGI, Jonathan Fawkner of Framestore said: So what we got from the production was literally an actor in a green background, and we were required to put everything else, including set material props and people . Hollywood studios often believe that digital effects are worth their price, even if it is just to enjoy the profit margin from the spin off sales of merchandise of toys and computer games. However if CGI can not sustain audience interest because it lacks other fundamental film elements such as narrative then no groundbreaking computer generated graphics will compensate for an audience dissatisfied with the story of a film. This was illuminated when Sony had to learn a bitter lesson after it released the sci-fi digital effects imbued Stealth (2005) which performed abysmally at the box office. DreamWorks also had a bloody nose in the same year with the release of The Island (2005) which again generated disappointing box office sales. As journalist and author Edward Epstein states: If this new economy of illusion allows the CGI side of a production to overwhelm the directors ability to tell a coherent story in his live-action side, digital effects may prove to be the ruination of movies . Another aspect of film erosion some argue is occurring when film requires the use of stunts to increase the action to higher levels of intensity. When American actor, writer, producer and director Douglas Fairbanks in the 1924 film version of the fantasy Thief of Baghdad impressively jumps from one huge pot to another with all the anticipation captured beautifully in the film he does so himself, with two unseen trampolines used to support the actor as he performs the stunt. The action sequence is thoroughly effective because it is real. Martial arts actor and director Jackie Chan brings to us films which are highly charged with plenty of karate sequences, this is for many part of the appeal of his films. The fighting scenes always use trained martial arts experts to bring the audience closer to the fighting action so they dont just see and hear it they feel it. However CGI threatens this authenticity by injecting scenes of action which are physically impossible for the human being. T he reality is that sadly with the continuing development of CGI there will be less impressive live stunts in film to enjoy. Another argument which criticises digital visual effects concerns the relationship with the aesthetics and the deeper meaning of what the aesthetics are depicting. If we look at a much older film such as the The Thief of Baghdad (1940) we observe a film which makes very effective use of visual effects for its time. It is obvious watching the film that the visual effects are easily identified as visual augmentations but in those aesthetics they actually capture a large degree of reality. Clearly the audience knows that horses and carpets are not capable of flying by themselves yet in the film that is precisely what we see and a visual treat it is despite its lack of visual sophistication. If those scenes were filmed today they would be produced through CGI processes which would load the scenes with fast paced shots of the horses imagined responses if it could fly which would be generated with intricate detail and seamless visual flow, we would see overview shots of the landscapes bene ath and we might even see an eagle or two because the whole sequence would be so busy that the audience just doesnt have time to appreciate the whole point of the scene that someone is flying through the air on a horse or carpet! And this is the problem when visual effects take over the scene it reduces the significance of what it portrays. Digital visual effects also seem to engender a type of laziness amongst some film makers. However in the film X-Files: I Want to Believe (2008) attention was focused away from digital support in favour of more traditional effects, the audience is aware that theyre not always seeing real bodies or real severed body parts but the effects were impressive and no CGI was used, the film makers instead employed model making efforts to realise the visual characteristics of the film. US scriptwriter and film critic Roger Ebert says: I have nothing against digital technology. It tricks the eye just as matte paintings and miniatures did. What Im concerned about is that filmmakers take it for granted. When youre not dealing with something physical, like a matte, youre tempted to go for broke, and then your ‘real life movie feels like a cartoon. The best effects are those that are entirely story-driven and character-driven. In many peoples view CGI is simply becoming overused. Steve Becks horror Ghost Ship (2002) received strong censure from critics and spectators for its digitally constructed scenes and lack of attention to narrative. The unreal look which comes with CGI can often destroy credibility for the audience. Special effects co-ordinator Randy Cabral believes that CGI has a damaging effect on some films, he says: I go to the movies often and Im taken out of the moment completely when you see something and its so unreal, so unbelievable and it just screams CGI that it completely ruins the film for me. Conclusion Looking at the top ten most successful films of all time, commercially speaking, every single one of them has employed CGI to a significant extent . From Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone (2001) to The Lord of the Rings: Return of the King (2003) through to Toy Story 3 (2010) and of course Avatar (2009) between them these films have thrilled worldwide audiences and rewarded them with a visual feast. There can be no denying the merits of digital effects and the overwhelming contribution it has made to cinema. The success in sales figures both at the box office and in DVD and Blu-ray profits matches the success of what CGI has achieved on screen. The advantages to the film industry are plenty as is evident from above, but what some directors and film makers some times overlook are the negative aspects of this technology. CGI can not replace a good story or substitute an intelligent script with meaningful dialogue and whilst it can indeed create stunning three dimensional characte rs it can not produce the depth of character which audiences can relate to if the character has no characteristics or depth of expression. It seems that some directors and the Hollywood system have not learnt these lessons fully yet. The recent sci-fi film Skyline (2010) relied heavily on digital effects, some which were quite clearly weak in parts, and lacked depth of narrative. The film attempted to ride on the back of recent successes in the genre like War of the Worlds (2005), Cloverfield (2007) and District 9 (2009) but failed to match their achievements. Skyline unfortunately is a modern example which demonstrates that Hollywood continues to ignore fundamental film constituents in favour of computer generated sequences to realise a film, perhaps after the box office failure of Skyline Hollywood may begin to effectively address this issue. Even directors like Tim Burton who have strong views on digital effects and resisted using them extensively for his remake of Charlie and th e Chocolate Factory (2005) still dont appreciate the damage CGI can do, as the film still featured many scenes that were not enhanced by the visual effects but were in fact weakened by them. Having considered many of the advantages and disadvantages of the use of visual effects within the film industry there are clearly two opposing perspectives. Some advocate the continuing and indeed increasing use of CGI as a key method for the production of major film projects and to realise the creativity of the human mind whilst others prefer a more moderate approach to the use of digital effects. James Cameron when being interviewed by Charlie Rose said: I threw everything I had at making it a great piece of entertainment and that was the 3-D, the CGI and creating the world and every trick I knew to get people to come to a theatre, and then every trick I knew as a filmmaker to engage them in terms of the story and the actors and so on . It is probably fair to suggest the most efficacious means of producing films should incorporate a balance, and ensure the right calculation between using digital technologies to realise the film and the other essential ingredients which makes the film successful. If the film industry chooses to ignore the genuine complaints of digital effects use then it may well find itself producing more films which do not connect with audiences, and thus runs the risk of damage not only their profits but their credibility also.

Henry Ford1 Essay -- essays papers

Henry Ford1 Octavian Augustus (63 B.C.E-14 AD) is known as the first, and one of the greatest, Roman Emperors ever. Octavian enabled the long, peaceful time of the Pax Romana by changing Rome from a fragile, crumbling republican government to a mighty empire. Octavian ¹s government was strong enough to withstand weak emperors who mismanaged the Empire. His changes proved to be the cornerstone of the greatest empire the world has ever seen. During the Conflict of Orders, the lower class Romans, or plebeians, forced the upper class Romans, known as patricians, to give them more rights and liberties (Hadas 1969). The Republican government in Rome was established to satisfy the plebeians, while still leaving a majority of the control with the patricians. The government consisted of three main parts: the senate, the assemblies and the magistrates. The Senate was a group of former state officials, usually patricians, who acted as advisors, controlled public finances and handled all diplomatic dealings with other states (Hanes 1997). The assemblies were the various public meetings where citizens voted on laws and public office (Hanes 1997). Magistrates were the elected officials who put the laws into practice. The most important of these magistrates were the consuls. The two consuls each elected for one year acted as the chief executives of the state. Censors were also very important magistrates. Censors were elected every five years to take a census and record the wealth of the people. Censors also had two other very important jobs. The first was to appoint candidates for the Senate and the seco nd was to award contracts for government projects (Hanes 1997). As time passed, the Romans also began to elect other magistrates called praetors. Praetors acted as judges but could also fill in for the Consuls when they were away (Hanes 1997). The Republic first started to lose power in 133 BCE Tiberius Gracchus and his brother Gaius were the leaders of a campaign to help the landowners/soldiers of Rome (Hanes 1997). The brothers tried to redistribute the public land of Rome to small farmers. The Senate, however, feared that the brothers were trying to take power away from the government. They ordered mobs to kill the brothers and hundreds of their supporters. The Gracchi ¹s efforts were the beginning of the Roman Revolution (Hanes 1997). In 107 B.C.E, a popu... ...eum and the comedies performed at the many theatres (Hadas 1969). The Romans are attributed with the development of concrete, which enabled them to build large structures such as aqueducts. As Rome grew into the primary world leader, it ¹s Republican government was falling apart. The Senate was ineffective because it had no control of the vast armies that provided power. Conservative Romans who believed strongly in the Republic would immediately target a strong general who took sole control. Rome was in need of a solitary, powerful leader. Octavian skillfully turned himself into an emperor without suffering the fate of his great-uncle, Caesar. He controlled the army, and managed to please the masses. Once in the position of power, he changed the government not only to benefit himself, but also to benefit the Empire and ultimately the people. This structure was so strong, that it could survive through weak emperors such as Caligula and Nero and major problems like who the next emperor should be. Octavian was so influential that eventually the Romans did not care that they were no longer a Republic. They knew that with Octavian, they could become the greatest empire in the world.

Give a Boy a Gun Essay

He says just about â€Å"yes, ma’amed† and â€Å"no, ma’amed†. Yes ma’am, everything is fine. No ma’am, I don’t have a problem with anyone. But you could see the pain and anger in his eyes. Citation: What Brendan and Gary did was terribly, horribly, inexcusably wrong. I have no interest in defending them. But deep in my heart there is a little piece of me that at least understands what might have driven them to such a horrendous, evil undertaking. But what those boys id was equally inexcusable and evil. Brett Betzig – Brendan’s friend in Springfield. Citation: One thing about Brendan: He hated injustice Deidre Bunson – student on the Middletown high schoolPaul Burns – Football player. Citation: One day in class we were talking about morality, and Brendan said there was no God. He didn’t say that he didn’t believe in God. He just said there was no God. (Because of the injustice in the world, he thinks that a God can’t exist) (Page 56) Brandan Lowlor:He is a sporty, skinny guy with glasses. His parents are very friendly and they can? t understand their son’s behavior. Brandan is highly intelligent, a litte bit excited (aufgeregt? Man kann in einer bestimmten Situation aufgeregt sein, aber fur eine Charaktereigenschaft brauchst du hier einen anderen Begriff. Was genau meinst du? ) and distrustful. He loves sports and videogames like â€Å"Doom†. He doesn’t want to move to Middletown, that’s the reason why he has problems at school.

Reality vs. Pretense: the Leading Binary Opposition in Lawrence’s “The Rocking Horse Winner”

â€Å"You can bend it and twist it; you can misuse and abuse it, but even God cannot change the reality,† the famous Michael Levy once said. This emblematic quotation assigns the pivotal basis for human beings upon which all other concepts are measured. It is the â€Å"reality† that none pursue but all worship. Since literary works spot the light on realities that people conceal, it is where binary oppositions are truly presented. D. H Lawrence's â€Å"The Rocking Horse Winner† is no exception. By presenting two main mythemes â€Å"Reality/Pretend† under the concept of attitudes, Lawrence shows how family members, society citizens and even inanimate objects prefer inferior pretense over superior reality. To begin with, the binary opposition of â€Å"Reality/Pretense† is intensively elaborated on by the attitudes of Paul's family. The mother, the uncle and Basset continue putting masks so as to obscure their real intentions towards Paul. The structure of the mother resides in her snake-changing conduct which perfectly conveys contradiction between authenticity and acting as if. She continually behaves as if she loves her children sincerely while â€Å"at the centre of her heart [there is] a hard little place that could not feel love. † The unstable make-believe deeds allow only for herself and her offspring to realize her real inner feelings even though not in front of others. The lack of verbal communication illustrates weakness within the family bonds substituting it with Paul's disapproving glares. By preferring silence over speaking, Paul himself portrays the unprivileged part of another binary: â€Å"presence/absence. The sky blue color of his eyes foreshadows his final end in which he leaves the earth to the skies. However, the uncle's role accumulates this pretend-you-care strategy in order to achieve maximum exploitation out of the child. Oscar shows care for the kid when asking Basset about the reason for Paul being interested in derbies. But digging deeper, one finds that it's the uncle who accompanies him to the derby and offers him five dollars. Furthermore, Basset alleges that he sympathizes with the child's interest. However, the hidden goal is no longer veiled; it's to squeeze out the little child for the sake of money. None of the family members acts in a real manner except Paul himself. What he has in pops out through his speech. Even this soothing reality changes at the end as the narrator says, â€Å"he [has] a secret within a secret, something he [has] not divulged, even to Bassett or to his Uncle Oscar. † Just like his rocking horse, none of Paul's family experiences stability but take the side of inferior part of the binary opposition as their personality determiner. Secondly, pretending a higher status in society is the focus of the mother for which she emotionally abandons her family. As evidence, the narrator declares, â€Å"there [is] always the grinding sense of the shortage of money, though the style [is] always kept up. † Camouflaging the real entitled financial status that the family maintains is what the mother approaches because such a reality would place her on the margins of society. The social networks are obviously built up according to pretended realities. This oxymoron is highly inflected in the way she and her husband expensively dress though the former only obtains â€Å"several hundred† as a salary. The mother's obsession with materialistic possessions forbids her from declaring the reality that they â€Å"are poor members of the family. † Instead, she incessantly pretends to have a prestige she doesn't really afford. The mother's egocentricity structure disintegrates the family and drives Paul to pay his life for her sake. Nevertheless, she quests a luxurious house to secrete their real pecuniary capabilities from society. For instance, the narrator asserts, â€Å"they live[s]in a pleasant house, with a garden, and they ha[ve] discreet servants, and [feel] themselves superior to anyone in the neighborhood. The inferior part of the binary opposition â€Å"Reality/Pretend† is what being avoided to speak about in public confirming the fact that unprivileged mythemes are not praised by society. This life-leading binary opposition is a core principle upon which all other binaries are measured including â€Å"satisfaction/ dis-satisfaction. † This is how readers are introduced to two complex binaries when the mother pretends satisfaction and hides the bona fide discontent. Structuralist Barthes emphasizes that binary oppositions are so etched in humanity's mind to the extent that one cannot conquer. Whether it's the plot structure or the characters’, they all confirm one fact: the quest for money to obey society ends up in a mother's guilt and a child's death. Last but not least, the spine-chilling means, by which inanimate objects in the house act, also contribute to the overall binary opposition that collapses the family. The house and toys pretend a realm of characteristics which are not taken for granted as real ones. The objective reality of the corruption of Paul's environment is based on the personified structures of those inanimate tems. The deluxe-looking house repeats â€Å"there must be more money† twelve times throughout the story leading Paul to a traumatic fall-down. A more convincing clue is illustrated by the fact that only at Christmas parties and birthdays, the house goes crazy and becomes haunted by the phrase. D. H Lawrence is actually intensifying the extreme contradiction between what characters are and what they do by delivering the binary op position under the concept of attitudes. It sounds as a plague moving from animate to inanimate ones. To add, the â€Å"big doll sitting so pink and smirking in her new pram† plays an important role in explaining the binary. â€Å"Smirking† is a sign in which the signified is â€Å"smiling,† and it also contrast reality with pretense. The denotation is to smile offensively with self-satisfied manner, and the connotation is about knowing the eerie truth of the house but not sharing it. It is the structure of the word that exposes unknown truths. Moreover, the puppy â€Å"look [s] so extraordinarily foolish† although it knows what the house breathes. That is related to another second-rate element in â€Å"wise/foolish† binary opposition. The idiotic acts of all residents of the house help them to accept pretense. Briefly, the binary isn't only engraved in humans, but also inanimate objects are affected by the ruined deception demonstrated by the house inhabitants. To conclude, the clashing attitudes which govern the relationship between family members, society citizens and non-living residents of the house add an emphasis to the inferior part of all binary oppositions; therefore they experience a deplorable end as a corollary for their un-approved choice. Structuralism doesn't allow for a truth on boundaries but for a conceivable objective accuracy. What manipulates humanity is made by humans themselves. We create and follow it regardless of our understanding or ignorance, thus preventing ourselves from finding a more productive reality. It's â€Å"Reality† which is the privileged in Barthes`s methodology, but Paul's surroundings don’t follow the center affecting him devastatingly. Back to Levy's first quotation, Lawrence's characters tries to misuse and abuse reality, but they cannot change it. Instead, they bury it and become ill-fated.

Loving Ones Self essays

Loving One's Self essays One day, my friend Samantha and I were walking through a mall. I had just turned 17, and my grandparents sent me some birthday money to spend. Samantha and I went shopping that day. We entered various stores, either purchasing or just glancing around. We carried bags of purchases in and out of stores, but at this mall they had a policy that I had never heard of. When we entered stores, we had to put our bags of purchases from other stores behind the counter of the cashier. Sam and I were surprised at this. We asked the employees at each store why we must do this, unsure of this policy. They all told us the same thing, store policy. We did as we were asked and continued to walk around the store. We saw other groups of kids our age come in, and the same thing was done as well. As all of this was happening, two adults, older than us, more likely to be in their thirties, walked in as they pleased. They held their bags in their hands the whole time they were in the store, no q uestions asked. Many adults walked in without a problem. I couldnt understand what the meaning of this was. Little did I know I was facing a social oppression I was unaware of called adultism. Adultism is the oppression of young people that happens from the day they are born. It is based on age and is presented by the attitudes of adults who surround young people, such as teachers and parents. Adultism can result, or be expressed through many things, such as stereotyping young adults as lazy, mean, angry, and silly, not including young people into decisions made at home and in the classroom, and the failure of supporting young adults development by not being a positive influence or putting in time to talk to us and see what is going on in our lives today. Memmis theory of racism can be applied to adultism as well. There are many situations in which people face the same prejudices for being young adults tha...

Childhood Education and Social Inequalities essays

Childhood Education and Social Inequalities essays Early Childhood Development and Social Inequalities By All families should have the same opportunities to live a descent life. But due to the backgrounds of some families, and children, they may not have a chance for this. There are certain risk factors that have a bearing on social inequalities in health, and particularly those that are prone to preventative intervention. There are many that I could talk about, but I have picked out four of these factors to talk about. They are biological factors, family and social factors, parenting factors, and attachment. Even these I feel that I will not be able to cover completely, because there is only a certain part we see, and then there is the that is kept hidden from all. There are many factors that influence the development and social inequalities in a childs life. These include biological, family and social factors, parenting factors, attachment, and the way non-maternal care is influenced. All of these are risk factors that are likely to have a bearing on the childs social inequalities on their health. The biological factors include premature birth, low birth weight, and a serious medical illness. The significantly influence and infants growth. Low birth weight, less than 2500 grams, has a prevalence of 6 percent in white middle-class U.S. women, and 15 percent in ethnic minority teenagers. These teenagers tend to be single mothers. At the Infant Health and Development Project, they found that in a large amount of premature infants, that their IQ was less than 85 at three years of age. Race was the greatest factor in predicting outcome, that was followed by maternal education, and then medical complications. The infants of poorly educated African American mothers (90%) who had medical complications were severely compromised, while only nine percent of white infants with...

Censorship - We Must Not Restrict Speech

We can not restrict racial discrimination of speech, and gender discrimination and homosexual aversion are developed in university campuses throughout the country. Correspondingly, many universities adopt policies that restrict prejudice problems by limiting speech. Many administrators believe that alternatives to this restriction are educational opportunities to enable paranoia and deprive them of their goals. The university's ability to eliminate prejudice within campus is not ultimately an ability to punish racists, but rather by deep efforts on equality and educational principles. Carol: In my opinion, John Stuart Miller's most powerful argument about freedom of speech is that, when restricting speech, it must decide which government authorities have the right to consider. It may not be a government agency that you trust that you review. Companies are easily censored. There is also a website onlinecensorship.org, another team called EFF and Visualizing Impact that seeks to track the occurrence of this situation. The straight line is very clear. If you are a very strong person, you let others leave the platform. If you are a man without power, you will not do so When talking about censorship in the United States, we often talk about how people accept results. People in our country do not actually restrict their speech in a meaningful way. They have countless ways to convey their message. They have not been imprisoned in most cases. There are defects. Do Neo Nazi's disgusting messages meet the community standards of social media sites? In fact, most social media sites claim that they prohibit dislikes that they dislikes under their terms of use. In fact, their implementation of these standards is questionable. Over the years many women and minorities have shared posts that enable discrimination by racial discrimination and gender by social media. Censorship is suppression of freedom of expression and is usually based on freedom of speech that harms or harm th e public. Expression may be restricted because it is judged to be obscene, blasphemic, non-patriotic, agitative or immoral. The term review usually applies to government restrictions on freedom of expression in public places, such as laws restricting the display of Nazi flags, government officials closing the display of public art. However, efforts to restrict freedom of expression are not review in the government's sense, but may also arise from private organizations best known as non-governmental issues. For example, a publisher may cancel a contract for a book. Theater creator opponents can advertise and boycott the financial supporters of the movie. Freedom of speech, censorship, problems other than government, review of voluntary restrictions, self-censorship Censorship - We Must Not Restrict Speech We can not restrict racial discrimination of speech, and gender discrimination and homosexual aversion are developed in university campuses throughout the country. Correspondingly, many universities adopt policies that restrict prejudice problems by limiting speech. Many administrators believe that alternatives to this restriction are educational opportunities to enable paranoia and deprive them of their goals. The university's ability to eliminate prejudice within campus is not ultimately an ability to punish racists, but rather by deep efforts on equality and educational principles. Carol: In my opinion, John Stuart Miller's most powerful argument about freedom of speech is that, when restricting speech, it must decide which government authorities have the right to consider. It may not be a government agency that you trust that you review. Companies are easily censored. There is also a website onlinecensorship.org, another team called EFF and Visualizing Impact that seeks to track the occurrence of this situation. The straight line is very clear. If you are a very strong person, you let others leave the platform. If you are a man without power, you will not do so When talking about censorship in the United States, we often talk about how people accept results. People in our country do not actually restrict their speech in a meaningful way. They have countless ways to convey their message. They have not been imprisoned in most cases. There are defects. Do Neo Nazi's disgusting messages meet the community standards of social media sites? In fact, most social media sites claim that they prohibit dislikes that they dislikes under their terms of use. In fact, their implementation of these standards is questionable. Over the years many women and minorities have shared posts that enable discrimination by racial discrimination and gender by social media. Censorship is suppression of freedom of expression and is usually based on freedom of speech that harms or harm th e public. Expression may be restricted because it is judged to be obscene, blasphemic, non-patriotic, agitative or immoral. The term review usually applies to government restrictions on freedom of expression in public places, such as laws restricting the display of Nazi flags, government officials closing the display of public art. However, efforts to restrict freedom of expression are not review in the government's sense, but may also arise from private organizations best known as non-governmental issues. For example, a publisher may cancel a contract for a book. Theater creator opponents can advertise and boycott the financial supporters of the movie. Freedom of speech, censorship, problems other than government, review of voluntary restrictions, self-censorship

HEALTHCARE ETHICS AND END OF LIFE DECISIONS Essay - 4

HEALTHCARE ETHICS AND END OF LIFE DECISIONS - Essay Example Given a situation where the patient prefers death, the physician has a responsibility to provide valid information on the patient’s health, avail options of handling the illness and providing final options. In cases where the doctor decides to help with death, they assume the final responsibility of administering the lethal injection. This seems a rather controversial issue faced with a need to establish direction, so the legal fraternity has joined the debate. The aim is to establish a legal framework that guides physicians in decisions regarding assisted suicide. The mandate of establishing these laws has largely fallen under the state governments. At the moment, almost every state has a legal guideline on assisted deaths, though there is lack of the specific connection to physicians. It is quite obvious that they are also addressed under the very laws. The law under the States outlines that anyone who deliberately permits, aids, advises, coerces or encourages another to terminate their life commits manslaughter. Some laws go further to specific legal repercussions such as imprisonment. Given the position of the law and the need for compassion, especially for terminally ill patients, controversy arises. This has required court’s interpretation. Several of these cases, touching on physician-assisted suicide, have been heard across American Courts. An example is Washington et al. v. Glucksberg et al. argued in Supreme Court of the United States. The case involved physicians who had sought the indulgence of the court to declare unconstitutional the existent ban on assisted suicide. The Court, though specific to Washington, upheld the law noting assisted suicide as a crime under law (Washington et al. v. Glucksberg et al). Looking through these presentations it is clear that the law, as indicated and interpreted by the Court, is against assisted suicide. Under these circumstances, it is proper

Direct Marketing Communications Campaign in Easy Jet Case Study

Direct Marketing Communications Campaign in Easy Jet - Case Study Example Internal communication in an organization is the stepping stone that enables a cordial communication between the company and the outsiders. (Littlejohn, 2002, P. 30) A communication campaign is a well defined communication strategy that helps an organization to communicate with the customers. It is a strategy for internal and external communication within the organization. A communication campaign represents well arranged interacted strategies which are aimed at delivering a certain message to the customers and which is important for effective relationship in an organization. (Werner 1998, P. 72) There are various communication campaigns that are used in the market by different organization. An organization can use one specific communication campaign or it can integrate number of campaigns with an aim of delivering its core message home to the target audience. The kind of communication campaign that is used by a company depends on the target audience and the kind of message that an organization wants to deliver. (Dempsey 1997, P. 7) In this paper we will be reviewing how easyJet, which is one of the prosperous low cost airline in the UK has been using internet tools as direct marketing communication campaign in the market. We will review what the company has achieved and review the areas that it needs to improve. The company was founded by Sir Stelios Haji-loa... The Airline is based at Hangar 89 which is a bright orange building next to the taxiway at Luton airport. This represent the simplicity way that the company has been using for its operation which is not only reflected in it headquarter but also in the pricing strategies that that company has adopted. Since it was started the company has been keeping the policy of low cost operation and has been eliminating unnecessary cost and frills which has been characterizing the traditional airlines. This has been achieved through a number of ways. One of those ways has been the maximization in the utilization of the substantial assets which has reduced the unit cost of the airline. It has also taken the policy of not providing free lunch on the airport. It has kept to the efficient use of the airports. But its main source of success in keeping the cost of operation low has been the policies that the company has taken towards the use of internet and paperless operations which have been enabled by the direct marketing campaign through the use of internet tool. (easyJet.com, 2008b) Use of internet communication campaign in EasyJet Easy jet was one of the first airlines in the UK to embrace the use of the internet when sold the seat online in 1998. Since then the company has not looked backward in its internet campaign and currently online marketing accounts for more than 95% of all its sales. This makes the company to the one of the leading internet retailers in the Europe. EasyJet has become one of the leading airlines in Europe which have banked on the use of the internet for their success. The company has adopted an e-commerce strategy which has been the main tool of communication with the consumers. In this regard the internet has become the main

Minoans and Mycenaean Culture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Minoans and Mycenaean Culture - Research Paper Example The island of Crete was home to the Minoans while Mainland Greece for the Mycenaeans. Also, though there is no written record, Minoans and Mycenaeans are believed to speak Greek. Geographically speaking, we come to understand that Minoans had more advantage geographically as Crete soil is very fertile that spurred growth of affluent population. This pushed the Minoans to develop the first civilization in Europe which was a sort of imitation of the Egyptian culture. However, because of the increasing standard of living they had, they out grew their limited resources and had Mycenaean culture lord over them when their economic and political system started crumbling down ("Minoan Culture and the Mycenaeans." N.p., n.d). The Mycenaeans, according to many scholars became more advanced and knowledgeable than the Minoans when it comes to infrastructure and livelihood. They were able to develop roads first, as they did not seem to have ridden on horses as they were small. However, there were some inventories found in their palace ruins that proved their use of chariots at their time. Aside from that, the Mycenaeans also showed more prowess in weaponry as there were a lot of information drawn from symbols, though are still subject to interpretation, that conveyed this culture to having what we call today swords and daggers. Because of this, Mycenaeans were deemed as more powerful than the Minoans that led the latter to take over the Minoan culture. The cities that Mycenaeans developed were even called warlord cities because their society was primarily geared towards battle and invasion (Minoan and Mycenaean Cultures. N.p, n.d). Architecture has always been a strong point for both cultures as they developed sophisticated architecture alike. This is their way of expending their wealth. Both had a royal class especially the Mycenaeans which drew a strong line between the poor and the rich as the skeletal remains found by archeologists proved that people who belonged to the higher class had taller and stronger bones as opposed to the lower class people that suggest the disparity between the wealthy and the poor in terms of nutrition. There is little known about both civilizations’ religion except from the images that is reflected in their art. Speaking of art, Mycenaeans were very much influenced by the kind of mindset they were born to uphold and their culture. Thus, one would be able to see imminently how their art is skewed to portray snapshots of warfare and hunting. On the other hand, Minoan art is more concerned with the fond inclination of everyday life. Enormous quantities of pottery throughout the Eastern Mediterranean directed scholars to learning about these early civilizations. When it comes to producing wealth, Minoans and Mycenaeans were alike as both were very interested in goods and were good at trading through bartering raw goods, though it was the Minoans who first were heavily engaged in trade oversees, mainly to obtain metal s such as tin and copper to produce bronze that was triggered by their need to produce more resources that has been limited in Crete ("Minoan Culture and the Mycenaeans." N.p., n.d). Minoans were also mercantile people where their ships have taken the function of both trader and fighter at the same time. Both their knowledge in trading was hugely caused by the fact that both cultures were able to develop a writing system that made business dealings easier, though

Assigment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Assigment - Assignment Example Personality is made up of Id, Ego and Super Ego. For some humans like Tom the Id takes over the Ego and especially Self Ego (voice of conscious that focuses on how we have to behave). Id is the energy constantly striving to satisfy the basic driver i.e. the principle of pleasure. This Principle drives a human being to fulfill our desires, even if it is by selfish means. (Atkinson, 1987) C. It is the interaction one has with his or her environment. Peeping Tom may have not received the right environment according to Carl Rogers and never realized his full potential. He was involved in wrong doings from his childhood, and the reason for these wrong doings can be associated with his friends and peers. He is just doing what he enjoys doing without considering the feelings of others.(Atkinson, 1987) 2.) A. In doing an experiment to test the effects of caffeine on a 20 word list, I would set up a control group and an experimental group. The control group will not be treated with caffeine a nd the experimental group will be given caffeine. The independent variable will be the amount of caffeine given and the dependent variable will be the memory of people after consuming caffeine. B. Two things that could act as extraneous variables might be eating something else in between and the environmental conditions. A very cool or a very hot environment can also affect any person’s behavior. C. ... E. Experimental Bias could be operating in this instance if some people are given little amounts of caffeine as compared to other in the experimental group. F. If results are statistically significant, it means caffeine have a good impact on the learning of people. It enhances their memory and learning power. (Plotnik, 2002) 3.) A. Students’ sleepiness or dizziness rate- When they consume more caffeine they don’t sleep in class and stay awake throughout the lecture. They tend to be more vigilant during classroom and hence productivity is enhanced. Active- They tend to be more active during classroom and class room participation is enhanced. Students participate more in class activities. (Hilgard, 1967) B. Consuming caffeine makes them stay awake late at night completing assignments due to which they are sluggish during university hours. Even though they can consume more caffeine, their health is negatively affected. Headaches are common in university students. Also due to caffeine consumption, they do stay awake but addiction causes them to go to sleep whenever its affect is perished. (Hilgard, 1967) 4.) There are processes involved in memory as levels of processing theory say. According to this theory, a person has to pass through a series of processes to actually recall a memory and permanently recall it. It then becomes a well recalled memory eventually. However, according to information processing theory, the mind of human being is like a computer. It can recall any memory it wants to at any time and can permanently recall it, it then becomes a well recalled memory that cannot be forgotten. (Hilgard, 1967) 5.) A. Classical conditioning is the basic form of

International Financial Markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International Financial Markets - Essay Example The development and the growing trend of the market are subdivided and depicted with the aid of graphs and charts for analytical review. Obstacles hindering the smooth growth are also dealt with in the paper. International Financial Markets collectively represents the total international trade and transaction in the foreign exchange market, international capital or foreign exchange basically refers to an over-the-counter (OTC) market, focusing on international currency trade. (Nature of foreign exchange, 2007) The whole scenario of international trade comprising of imports and exports and the flow of international capital is carried out through the Foreign exchange market. (Foreign Exchange in Economics, 2007) International exchange market is the largest global market place in regard to the monetary value traded, also includes international interbank trading, the exchange between central banks, multinational corporations and other international level speculators. The estimated average current global trade rate exceeds US$1.9 trillion/day. (Foreign Exchange Market, 2007) The foreign exchange market is the place where trading of currencies takes place. The foreign exchange market proclaims to be the largest and most volatile market all over the globe. Under the foreign exchange, foreign currency is used for trading and the trade takes place between nations. Price list for the goods or services imported or exported items between countries etc. gets its cash value established from the foreign exchange trade. 'Bank drafts, bills of exchange, bankers' acceptances, and letters of credit' etc., could be exchanged at previously agreed rates for settlement of debts. This results in the accumulation of currency surplus, received by way of loan repayments, import-export trade guaranteeing etc., done by the foreign exchange market for its customers. (Foreign exchange in economics, 2007)

Minoans and Mycenaean Culture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Minoans and Mycenaean Culture - Research Paper Example The island of Crete was home to the Minoans while Mainland Greece for the Mycenaeans. Also, though there is no written record, Minoans and Mycenaeans are believed to speak Greek. Geographically speaking, we come to understand that Minoans had more advantage geographically as Crete soil is very fertile that spurred growth of affluent population. This pushed the Minoans to develop the first civilization in Europe which was a sort of imitation of the Egyptian culture. However, because of the increasing standard of living they had, they out grew their limited resources and had Mycenaean culture lord over them when their economic and political system started crumbling down ("Minoan Culture and the Mycenaeans." N.p., n.d). The Mycenaeans, according to many scholars became more advanced and knowledgeable than the Minoans when it comes to infrastructure and livelihood. They were able to develop roads first, as they did not seem to have ridden on horses as they were small. However, there were some inventories found in their palace ruins that proved their use of chariots at their time. Aside from that, the Mycenaeans also showed more prowess in weaponry as there were a lot of information drawn from symbols, though are still subject to interpretation, that conveyed this culture to having what we call today swords and daggers. Because of this, Mycenaeans were deemed as more powerful than the Minoans that led the latter to take over the Minoan culture. The cities that Mycenaeans developed were even called warlord cities because their society was primarily geared towards battle and invasion (Minoan and Mycenaean Cultures. N.p, n.d). Architecture has always been a strong point for both cultures as they developed sophisticated architecture alike. This is their way of expending their wealth. Both had a royal class especially the Mycenaeans which drew a strong line between the poor and the rich as the skeletal remains found by archeologists proved that people who belonged to the higher class had taller and stronger bones as opposed to the lower class people that suggest the disparity between the wealthy and the poor in terms of nutrition. There is little known about both civilizations’ religion except from the images that is reflected in their art. Speaking of art, Mycenaeans were very much influenced by the kind of mindset they were born to uphold and their culture. Thus, one would be able to see imminently how their art is skewed to portray snapshots of warfare and hunting. On the other hand, Minoan art is more concerned with the fond inclination of everyday life. Enormous quantities of pottery throughout the Eastern Mediterranean directed scholars to learning about these early civilizations. When it comes to producing wealth, Minoans and Mycenaeans were alike as both were very interested in goods and were good at trading through bartering raw goods, though it was the Minoans who first were heavily engaged in trade oversees, mainly to obtain metal s such as tin and copper to produce bronze that was triggered by their need to produce more resources that has been limited in Crete ("Minoan Culture and the Mycenaeans." N.p., n.d). Minoans were also mercantile people where their ships have taken the function of both trader and fighter at the same time. Both their knowledge in trading was hugely caused by the fact that both cultures were able to develop a writing system that made business dealings easier, though

International Financial Markets Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International Financial Markets - Essay Example The development and the growing trend of the market are subdivided and depicted with the aid of graphs and charts for analytical review. Obstacles hindering the smooth growth are also dealt with in the paper. International Financial Markets collectively represents the total international trade and transaction in the foreign exchange market, international capital or foreign exchange basically refers to an over-the-counter (OTC) market, focusing on international currency trade. (Nature of foreign exchange, 2007) The whole scenario of international trade comprising of imports and exports and the flow of international capital is carried out through the Foreign exchange market. (Foreign Exchange in Economics, 2007) International exchange market is the largest global market place in regard to the monetary value traded, also includes international interbank trading, the exchange between central banks, multinational corporations and other international level speculators. The estimated average current global trade rate exceeds US$1.9 trillion/day. (Foreign Exchange Market, 2007) The foreign exchange market is the place where trading of currencies takes place. The foreign exchange market proclaims to be the largest and most volatile market all over the globe. Under the foreign exchange, foreign currency is used for trading and the trade takes place between nations. Price list for the goods or services imported or exported items between countries etc. gets its cash value established from the foreign exchange trade. 'Bank drafts, bills of exchange, bankers' acceptances, and letters of credit' etc., could be exchanged at previously agreed rates for settlement of debts. This results in the accumulation of currency surplus, received by way of loan repayments, import-export trade guaranteeing etc., done by the foreign exchange market for its customers. (Foreign exchange in economics, 2007)

Understanding Fully Experience on the Perspective of Art Essay Example for Free

Understanding Fully Experience on the Perspective of Art Essay Experience remains to be a subjective issue for persons who happened to encounter important or non-important events in their lives that seem to have made an impact. In terms of art and esthetics, experience also manifests in the condition of subjectivity, however misconceptions and uncertainty arises because of the lack of deeper understanding on how experience affects this field. This paper seeks to elaborate on three arguments presented by John Dewey with regards to his book â€Å"Art as an experience†. Experience according to the essay is vital in the appreciation and understanding of esthetics and art. Experience in this vital sense is defined by those situations and episodes that we spontaneously refer to as being â€Å"real experiences†; those things of which we say in recalling them, â€Å"that was an experience†. (Dewey, 1980, p. 37) The paper will now argue on a point elaborated by the author. The first argument is whether an esthetic experience is deduced in the element of the intellectual or the emotional. Dewey first mentioned the idea’s surrounding esthetic experience to be intellectually oriented and at the same time elaborated on the idea of how these experiences are linked into the emotional side of man. In short, esthetic cannot be sharply marked off from intellectual experience since the latter must bear an esthetic stamp to be itself complete. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 40) In short, the author sees that there must be a balance and correlation between the emotional and intellectual aspects of man in understanding experiences. In response to the first argument presented by Dewey, the paper agrees to the author that a balance must be set in order for esthetic experience to be fully understood. Moreover, one’s ideas is subjective in its sense that application of one aspect alone cannot fully explain and elaborate ones initial or total experience per se. Giving oneself the understanding that to fully appreciate the esthetic value of experience one must be able to bridge the gap and link the emotional as well as the intellectual appreciation of man. The next argument presented by Dewey also has the connection with the first argument he elaborated regarding the idea of emotional and intellectual capacity of man and to associate it with experience. There are therefore common patterns in various experiences, no matter how unlike they are to one another in the details of their subject matter. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 45) In another argument, Dewey points out the idea of doing and undergoing in relation with experience. In this light, Dewey points out that these processes are related in to the concepts related to art; artistic and esthetic. â€Å"Since ‘artistic† refers primarily to the act of production and â€Å"esthetic† to that of perception and enjoyment, the absence of a term designating the two processes taken together is unfortunate. (Dewey, 1980, p. 48) The author tried to point out that these two must never be separated from one another but instead these two ideas are correlated when it comes to experience. Dewey establishes the connection between the four ideas. He linked artistic as a form of doing while esthetic to the concept of undergoing. Dewey further pointed out by saying: â€Å"however as well as the relation that exists in having an experience between doing and undergoing, indicate that the distinction between esthetic and artistic cannot be pressed so far to become a separation. (Dewey, 1980, p. 49) The paper agrees with the author regarding the issue that the idea of undergoing and doing given in the concepts of esthetic and artistic respectively must never be separated in the field of art experience. The paper also agrees with Dewey’s claim that â€Å"to be truly artistic, a work must also be esthetic† (Dewey, 1980, p. 49) There must be a distinct connection between the two ideas since an appreciation of only one aspect would only make the experience incomplete or depriving on the part of the person. To be able to understand fully the art experience given one must be able to combine the feelings of the doer (artist) and in turn internalize the effect it does to the person which is denoted by the process of undergoing (esthetic). The paper agrees to the idea of Dewey by saying: â€Å"art, in its form, unites the very same relation of doing and undergoing, outgoing and incoming energy, that makes an experience to be an experience. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 50) The last argument that the paper will focus on is the idea elaborated by Dewey with regards to the idea of how an individual sees art; perception or recognition. The author emphasizes this importance because this understanding will determine whether an individual fully comprehends and accepts the experience fully given by an art. He first elaborated on the individual meanings of the two and reiterated that it is better for perception to occur rather than recognition. â€Å"Perception is an act of the going-out of energy in order to receive, not a withholding of energy. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 55) He pointed that undergoing the process of recognition rather than perception would only lead to a minimal level of experience that is inadequate or deprived of the full appreciation of the experience. Recognition is perception arrested before it has a chance to develop freely. † (Dewey, 1980, p. 54) In reaction to the argument pointed out by Dewey, I would have to agree that perception is better than recognition in experiencing art. The paper points out this fact because with the idea of recognition, the individual only perceives an art based on the parameters that it is enclosed with. The deeper meaning and concept of an art is not really looked into. On the other hand, perception tries to give a holistic glimpse of the art experience to the individual. Yes, both ideas can give an individual the art experience that it desires however, the previous showcases an experience that is minimal compared to the latter. In conclusion, the paper showcased different arguments presented by Dewey in relation to understanding the art experience felt by individuals. Furthermore, the paper elaborated on issues and arguments that arouses from the idea. The concept of art experience can indeed benefit the individual more if these things were to be understood and studied by each person.

Three Major Issues Faced By Companies Going Overseas Marketing Essay

Three Major Issues Faced By Companies Going Overseas Marketing Essay The chapter begins by looking at the concept of market entry strategies within the control of a chosen marketing mix. It then goes on to describe the different forms of entry strategy, both direct and indirect exporting and foreign production, and the advantages and disadvantages connected with each method. The chapter gives specific details on countertrade, which is very prevalent in global marketing, and then concludes by looking at the special features of commodity trading with its close coupling between production and marketing. Basic issues An organisation wishing to go international faces three major issues: i) Marketing which countries, which segments, how to manage and implement marketing effort, how to enter with intermediaries or directly, with what information? ii) Sourcing whether to obtain products, make or buy? iii) Investment and control joint venture, global partner, acquisition? Decisions in the marketing area focus on the value chain (see figure 7.1). The strategy or entry alternatives must ensure that the necessary value chain activities are performed and integrated. Table 7.1 Examples of elements included in the export marketing mix 1. Product support Product sourcing Match existing products to markets air, sea, rail, road, freight New products Product management Product testing Manufacturing specifications Labelling Packaging Production control Market information 2. Price support Establishment of prices Discounts Distribution and maintenance of pricelists Competitive information Training of agents/customers 3. Promotion/selling support Advertising Promotion literature Direct mail Exhibitions, trade shows Printing Selling (direct) Sales force Agents commissions Sale or returns 4. Inventory support Inventory management Warehousing Distribution Parts supply Credit authorisation 5. Distribution support Funds provision Raising of capital Order processing Export preparation and documentation Freight forwarding Insurance Arbitration 6. Service support Market information/intelligence Quotes processing Technical aid assistance After sales Guarantees Warranties/claims Merchandising Sales reports, catalogues literature Customer care Budgets Data processing systems Insurance Tax services Legal services Translation 7. Financial support Billing, collecting invoices Hire, rentals Planning, scheduling budget data Auditing Details on the sourcing element have already been covered in the chapter on competitive analysis and strategy. Concerning investment and control, the question really is how far the company wishes to control its own fate. The degree of risk involved, attitudes and the ability to achieve objectives in the target markets are important facets in the decision on whether to license, joint venture or get involved in direct investment. Cunningham1 (1986) identified five strategies used by firms for entry into new foreign markets: i) Technical innovation strategy perceived and demonstrable superior products ii) Product adaptation strategy modifications to existing products iii) Availability and security strategy overcome transport risks by countering perceived risks iv) Low price strategy penetration price and, v) Total adaptation and conformity strategy foreign producer gives a straight copy. In marketing products from less developed countries to developed countries point iii) poses major problems. Buyers in the interested foreign country are usually very careful as they perceive transport, currency, quality and quantity problems. This is true, say, in the export of cotton and other commodities. Because, in most agricultural commodities, production and marketing are interlinked, the infrastructure, information and other resources required for building market entry can be enormous. Sometimes this is way beyond the scope of private organisations, so Government may get involved. It may get involved not just to support a specific commodity, but also to help the public good. Whilst the building of a new road may assist the speedy and expeditious transport of vegetables, for example, and thus aid in their marketing, the road can be put to other uses, in the drive for public good utilities. Moreover, entry strategies are often marked by lumpy investments. Huge investments may have to be undertaken, with the investor paying a high risk price, long before the full utilisation of the investment comes. Good examples of this include the building of port facilities or food processing or freezing facilities. Moreover, the equipment may not be able to be used for other processes, so the as set specific equipment, locked into a specific use, may make the owner very vulnerable to the bargaining power of raw material suppliers and product buyers who process alternative production or trading options. Zimfreeze, Zimbabwe is experiencing such problems. It built a large freezing plant for vegetables but found itself without a contract. It has been forced, at the moment, to accept sub optional volume product materials just in order to keep the plant ticking over. In building a market entry strategy, time is a crucial factor. The building of an intelligence system and creating an image through promotion takes time, effort and money. Brand names do not appear overnight. Large investments in promotion campaigns are needed. Transaction costs also are a critical factor in building up a market entry strategy and can become a high barrier to international trade. Costs include search and bargaining costs. Physical distance, language barriers, logistics costs and risk limit the direct monitoring of trade partners. Enforcement of contracts may be costly and weak legal integration between countries makes things difficult. Also, these factors are important when considering a market entry strategy. In fact these factors may be so costly and risky that Governments, rather than private individuals, often get involved in commodity systems. This can be seen in the case of the Citrus Marketing Board of Israel. With a monopoly export marketing board, the entire system can behave like a single firm, regulating the mix and quality of products going to different markets and negotiating with transporters and buyers. Whilst these Boards can experience economies of scale and absorb many of the risks listed above, they can shield producers from information about, and from. buyers. They can also become the fiefdoms of vested interests and become political in nature. They then result in giving reduced production incentives and cease to be demand or market orientated, which is detrimental to producers. Normal ways of expanding the markets are by expansion of product line, geographical development or both. It is important to note that the more the product line and/or the geographic area is expanded the greater will be the managerial complexity. New market opportunities may be made available by expansion but the risks may outweigh the advantages, in fact it may be better to concentrate on a few geographic areas and do things well. This is typical of the horticultural industry of Kenya and Zimbabwe. Traditionally these have concentrated on European markets where the markets are well known. Ways to concentrate include concentrating on geographic areas, reducing operational variety (more standard products) or making the organisational form more appropriate. In the latter the attempt is made to globalise the offering and the organisation to match it. This is true of organisations like Coca Cola and MacDonalds. Global strategies include country centred strategies (highly decentralised and limited international coordination), local market approaches (the marketing mix developed with the specific local (foreign) market in mind) or the lead market approach (develop a market which will be a best predictor of other markets). Global approaches give economies of scale and the sharing of costs and risks between markets. Entry strategies There are a variety of ways in which organisations can enter foreign markets. The three main ways are by direct or indirect export or production in a foreign country (see figure 7.2). Exporting Exporting is the most traditional and well established form of operating in foreign markets. Exporting can be defined as the marketing of goods produced in one country into another. Whilst no direct manufacturing is required in an overseas country, significant investments in marketing are required. The tendency may be not to obtain as much detailed marketing information as compared to manufacturing in marketing country; however, this does not negate the need for a detailed marketing strategy. The advantages of exporting are:  · manufacturing is home based thus, it is less risky than overseas based  · gives an opportunity to learn overseas markets before investing in bricks and mortar  · reduces the potential risks of operating overseas. The disadvantage is mainly that one can be at the mercy of overseas agents and so the lack of control has to be weighed against the advantages. For example, in the exporting of African horticultural products, the agents and Dutch flower auctions are in a position to dictate to producers. A distinction has to be drawn between passive and aggressive exporting. A passive exporter awaits orders or comes across them by chance; an aggressive exporter develops marketing strategies which provide a broad and clear picture of what the firm intends to do in the foreign market. Pavord and Bogart2 (1975) found significant differences with regard to the severity of exporting problems in motivating pressures between seekers and non-seekers of export opportunities. They distinguished between firms whose marketing efforts were characterized by no activity, minor activity and aggressive activity. Those firms who are aggressive have clearly defined plans and strategy, including product, price, promotion, distribution and research elements. Passiveness versus aggressiveness depends on the motivation to export. In countries like Tanzania and Zambia, which have embarked on structural adjustment programmes, organisations are being encouraged to export, motivated by foreign exchange earnings potential, saturated domestic markets, growth and expansion objectives, and the need to repay debts incurred by the borrowings to finance the programmes. The type of export response is dependent on how the pressures are perceived by the decision maker. Piercy (1982)3 highlights the fact that the degree of involvement in foreign operations depends on endogenous versus exogenous motivating factors, that is, whether the motivations were as a result of active or aggressive behaviour based on the firms internal situation (endogenous) or as a result of reactive environmental changes (exogenous). If the firm achieves initial success at exporting quickly all to the good, but the risks of failure in the early stages are high. The learning effect in exporting is usually very quick. The key is to learn how to minimise risks associated with the initial stages of market entry and commitment this process of incremental involvement is called creeping commitment (see figure 7.3). Exporting methods include direct or indirect export. In direct exporting the organisation may use an agent, distributor, or overseas subsidiary, or act via a Government agency. In effect, the Grain Marketing Board in Zimbabwe, being commercialised but still having Government control, is a Government agency. The Government, via the Board, are the only permitted maize exporters. Bodies like the Horticultural Crops Development Authority (HCDA) in Kenya may be merely a promotional body, dealing with advertising, information flows and so on, or it may be active in exporting itself, particularly giving approval (like HCDA does) to all export documents. In direct exporting the major problem is that of market information. The exporters task is to choose a market, find a representative or agent, set up the physical distribution and documentation, promote and price the product. Control, or the lack of it, is a major problem which often results in decisions on pricing, certification and promoti on being in the hands of others. Certainly, the phytosanitary requirements in Europe for horticultural produce sourced in Africa are getting very demanding. Similarly, exporters are price takers as produce is sourced also from the Caribbean and Eastern countries. In the months June to September, Europe is on season because it can grow its own produce, so prices are low. As such, producers are better supplying to local food processors. In the European winter prices are much better, but product competition remains. According to Collett4 (1991)) exporting requires a partnership between exporter, importer, government and transport. Without these four coordinating activities the risk of failure is increased. Contracts between buyer and seller are a must. Forwarders and agents can play a vital role in the logistics procedures such as booking air space and arranging documentation. A typical coordinated marketing channel for the export of Kenyan horticultural produce is given in figure 7.4. In this case the exporters can also be growers and in the low season both these and other exporters may send produce to food processors which is also exported. Figure 7.4 The export marketing channel for Kenyan horticultural products. Exporting can be very lucrative, especially if it is of high value added produce. For example in 1992/93 Zimbabwe exported 5 338,38 tonnes of flowers, 4 678,18 tonnes of horticultural produce and 12 000 tonnes of citrus at a total value of about US$ 22 016,56 million. In some cases a mixture of direct and indirect exporting may be achieved with mixed results. For example, the Grain Marketing Board of Zimbabwe may export grain directly to Zambia, or may sell it to a relief agency like the United Nations, for feeding the Mozambican refugees in Malawi. Payment arrangements may be different for the two transactions. Nali products of Malawi gives an interesting example of a passive to active exporting mode. CASE 7.1 Nali Producers Malawi Nali group, has, since the early 1970s, been engaged in the growing and exporting of spices. Spices are also used in the production of a variety of sauces for both the local and export market. Its major success has been the growing and exporting of Birdseye chilies. In the early days knowledge of the market was scanty and thus the company was obtaining ridiculously low prices. Towards the end of 1978 Nali chilies were in great demand, yet still the company, in its passive mode, did not fully appreciate the competitive implications of the business until a number of firms, including Lonrho and Press Farming, started to grow and export. Again, due to the lack of information, a product of its passivity, the firm did not realise that Uganda, with their superior product, and Papua New Guinea were major exporters, However, the full potential of these countries was hampered by internal difficulties. Nali was able to grow into a successful commercial enterprise. However, with the end of the internal problems, Uganda in particular, began an aggressive exporting policy, using their overseas legations as commercial propagandists. Nali had to respond with a more formal and active marketing operation. However it is being now hampered by a number of important exogenous factors. The entry of a number of new Malawian growers, with inferior products, has damaged the Malawian chili reputation, so has the lack of a clear Government policy and the lack of financing for traders, growers and exporters. The latter only serves to emphasise the point made by Collett, not only do organisations need to be aggressive, they also need to enlist the support of Government and importers. It is interesting to note that Korey (1986) warns that direct modes of market entry may be less and less available in the future. Growing trading blocs like the EU or EFTA means that the establishing of subsidiaries may be one of the only means forward in future. It is interesting to note that Korey5 1986 warned that direct modes of market entry may be less and less available in the future. Growing trading blocks like the EU or EFTA means that the establishment of subsidiaries may be one of the only ways forward in future. Indirect methods of exporting include the use of trading companies (very much used for commodities like cotton, soya, cocoa), export management companies, piggybacking and countertrade. Indirect methods offer a number of advantages including:  · Contracts in the operating market or worldwide  · Commission sates give high motivation (not necessarily loyalty)  · Manufacturer/exporter needs little expertise  · Credit acceptance takes burden from manufacturer. Piggybacking Piggybacking is an interesting development. The method means that organisations with little exporting skill may use the services of one that has. Another form is the consolidation of orders by a number of companies in order to take advantage of bulk buying. Normally these would be geographically adjacent or able to be served, say, on an air route. The fertilizer manufacturers of Zimbabwe, for example, could piggyback with the South Africans who both import potassium from outside their respective countries. Countertrade By far the largest indirect method of exporting is countertrade. Competitive intensity means more and more investment in marketing. In this situation the organisation may expand operations by operating in markets where competition is less intense but currency based exchange is not possible. Also, countries may wish to trade in spite of the degree of competition, but currency again is a problem. Countertrade can also be used to stimulate home industries or where raw materials are in short supply. It can, also, give a basis for reciprocal trade. Estimates vary, but countertrade accounts for about 20-30% of world trade, involving some 90 nations and between US $100-150 billion in value. The UN defines countertrade as commercial transactions in which provisions are made, in one of a series of related contracts, for payment by deliveries of goods and/or services in addition to, or in place of, financial settlement. Countertrade is the modem form of barter, except contracts are not legal and it is not covered by GATT. It can be used to circumvent import quotas. Countertrade can take many forms. Basically two separate contracts are involved, one for the delivery of and payment for the goods supplied and the other for the purchase of and payment for the goods imported. The performance of one contract is not contingent on the other although the seller is in effect accepting products and services from the importing country in partial or total settlement for his exports. There is a broad agreement that countertrade can take various forms of exchange like barter, counter purchase, switch trading and compensation (buyback). For example, in 1986 Albania began offering items like spring water, tomato juice and chrome ore in exchange for a contract to build a US $60 million fertilizer and methanol complex. Information on potential exchange can be obtained from embassies, trade missions or the EU trading desks. Barter is the direct exchange of one good for another, although valuation of respective commodities is difficult, so a currency is used to underpin the items value. Barter trade can take a number of formats. Simple barter is the least complex and oldest form of bilateral, non-monetarised trade. Often it is called straight, classical or pure barter. Barter is a direct exchange of goods and services between two parties. Shadow prices are approximated for products flowing in either direction. Generally no middlemen are involved. Usually contracts for no more than one year are concluded, however, if for longer life spans, provisions are included to handle exchange ratio fluctuations when world prices change. Closed end barter deals are modifications of straight barter in that a buyer is found for goods taken in barter before the contract is signed by the two trading parties. No money is involved and risks related to product quality are significantly reduced. Clearing account barter, also termed clearing agreements, clearing arrangements, bilateral clearing accounts or simply bilateral clearing, is where the principle is for the trades to balance without either party having to acquire hard currency. In this form of barter, each party agrees in a single contract to purchase a specified and usually equal value of goods and services. The duration of these transactions is commonly one year, although occasionally they may extend over a longer time period. The contracts value is expressed in non-convertible, clearing account units (also termed clearing dollars) that effectively represent a line of credit in the central bank of the country with no money involved. Clearing account units are universally accepted for the accounting of trade between countries and parties whose commercial relationships are based on bilateral agreements. The contract sets forth the goods to be exchanged, the rates of exchange, and the length of time for completing the transaction. Limited export or import surpluses may be accumulated by either party for short periods. Generally, after one years time, imbalances are settled by one of the following approaches: credit against the following year, acceptance of unwanted goods, payment of a previously specified penalty or payment of the difference in hard currency. Trading specialists have also initiated the practice of buying clearing dollars at a discount for the purpose of using them to purchase saleable products. In turn, the trader may forfeit a portion of the discount to sell these products for hard currency on the international market. Compared with simple barter, clearing accounts offer greater flexibility in the length of time for drawdown on the lines of credit and the types of products exchanged. Counter purchase, or buyback, is where the customer agrees to buy goods on condition that the seller buys some of the customers own products in return (compensatory products). Alternatively, if exchange is being organised at national government level then the seller agrees to purchase compensatory goods from an unrelated organisation up to a pre-specified value (offset deal). The difference between the two is that contractual obligations related to counter purchase can extend over a longer period of time and the contract requires each party to the deal to settle most or all of their account with currency or trade credits to an agreed currency value. Where the seller has no need for the item bought he may sell the produce on, usually at a discounted price, to a third party. This is called a switch deal. In the past a number of tractors have been brought into Zimbabwe from East European countries by switch deals. Compensation (buy-backs) is where the supplier agrees to take the output of the facility over a specified period of time or to a specified volume as payment. For example, an overseas company may agree to build a plant in Zambia, and output over an agreed period of time or agreed volume of produce is exported to the builder until the period has elapsed. The plant then becomes the property of Zambia. Khoury6 (1984) categorises countertrade as follows (see figure 7.5): One problem is the marketability of products received in countertrade. This problem can be reduced by the use of specialised trading companies which, for a fee ranging between 1 and 5% of the value of the transaction, will provide trade related services like transportation, marketing, financing, credit extension, etc. These are ever growing in size. Countertrade has disadvantages:  · Not covered by GATT so dumping may occur  · Quality is not of international standard so costly to the customer and trader  · Variety is tow so marketing of wkat is limited  · Difficult to set prices and service quality  · Inconsistency of delivery and specification,  · Difficult to revert to currency trading so quality may decline further and therefore product is harder to market. Figure 7.5 Classification of countertrade Shipley and Neale7 (1988) therefore suggest the following:  · Ensure the benefits outweigh the disadvantages  · Try to minimise the ratio of compensation goods to cash if possible inspect the goods for specifications  · Include all transactions and other costs involved in countertrade in the nominal value specified for the goods being sold  · Avoid the possibility of error of exploitation by first gaining a thorough understanding of the customers buying systems, regulations and politics,  · Ensure that any compensation goods received as payment are not subject to import controls. Despite these problems countertrade is likely to grow as a major indirect entry method, especially in developing countries. Foreign production Besides exporting, other market entry strategies include licensing, joint ventures, contract manufacture, ownership and participation in export processing zones or free trade zones. Licensing: Licensing is defined as the method of foreign operation whereby a firm in one country agrees to permit a company in another country to use the manufacturing, processing, trademark, know-how or some other skill provided by the licensor. It is quite similar to the franchise operation. Coca Cola is an excellent example of licensing. In Zimbabwe, United Bottlers have the licence to make Coke. Licensing involves little expense and involvement. The only cost is signing the agreement and policing its implementation. Licensing gives the following advantages:  · Good way to start in foreign operations and open the door to low risk manufacturing relationships  · Linkage of parent and receiving partner interests means both get most out of marketing effort  · Capital not tied up in foreign operation and  · Options to buy into partner exist or provision to take royalties in stock. The disadvantages are:  · Limited form of participation to length of agreement, specific product, process or trademark  · Potential returns from marketing and manufacturing may be lost  · Partner develops know-how and so licence is short  · Licensees become competitors overcome by having cross technology transfer deals and  · Requires considerable fact finding, planning, investigation and interpretation. Those who decide to license ought to keep the options open for extending market participation. This can be done through joint ventures with the licensee. Joint ventures Joint ventures can be defined as an enterprise in which two or more investors share ownership and control over property rights and operation. Joint ventures are a more extensive form of participation than either exporting or licensing. In Zimbabwe, Olivine industries has a joint venture agreement with HJ Heinz in food processing. Joint ventures give the following advantages:  · Sharing of risk and ability to combine the local in-depth knowledge with a foreign partner with know-how in technology or process  · Joint financial strength  · May be only means of entry and  · May be the source of supply for a third country. They also have disadvantages:  · Partners do not have full control of management  · May be impossible to recover capital if need be  · Disagreement on third party markets to serve and  · Partners may have different views on expected benefits. If the partners carefully map out in advance what they expect to achieve and how, then many problems can be overcome. Ownership: The most extensive form of participation is 100% ownership and this involves the greatest commitment in capital and managerial effort. The ability to communicate and control 100% may outweigh any of the disadvantages of joint ventures and licensing. However, as mentioned earlier, repatriation of earnings and capital has to be carefully monitored. The more unstable the environment the less likely is the ownership pathway an option. These forms of participation: exporting, licensing, joint ventures or ownership, are on a continuum rather than discrete and can take many formats. Anderson and Coughlan8 (1987) summarise the entry mode as a choice between company owned or controlled methods integrated channels or independent channels. Integrated channels offer the advantages of planning and control of resources, flow of information, and faster market penetration, and are a visible sign of commitment. The disadvantages are that they incur many costs (especially marketing), the risks are high, some may be more effective than others (due to culture) and in some cases their credibility amongst locals may be lower than that of controlled independents. Independent channels offer lower performance costs, risks, less capital, high local knowledge and credibility. Disadvantages include less market information flow, greater coordinating and control difficulties and motivational difficulties. In addition they may not be will ing to spend money on market development and selection of good intermediaries may be difficult as good ones are usually taken up anyway. Once in a market, companies have to decide on a strategy for expansion. One may be to concentrate on a few segments in a few countries typical are cashewnuts from Tanzania and horticultural exports from Zimbabwe and Kenya or concentrate on one country and diversify into segments. Other activities include country and market segment concentration typical of Coca Cola or Gerber baby foods, and finally country and segment diversification. Another way of looking at it is by identifying three basic business strategies: stage one international, stage two multinational (strategies correspond to ethnocentric and polycentric orientations respectively) and stage three global strategy (corresponds with geocentric orientation). The basic philosophy behind stage one is extension of programmes and products, behind stage two is decentralisation as far as possible to local operators and behind stage three is an integration which seeks to synthesize inputs from world and regional headquarters an d the country organisation. Whilst most developing countries are hardly in stage one, they have within them organisations which are in stage three. This has often led to a rebellion against the operations of multinationals, often unfounded. Export processing zones (EPZ) Whilst not